Space+Race,+Arms+Race,+Nuclear+Proliferation



__//**Space Race, Arms Race and Nuclear Proliferation**//__~ by Kai Wang, Kara Mitchell, and Kristin Hamilton

(Email to bordercolliehope@hotmail.com, QTAngelsealBabee@hotmail.com , or kristin-hamilton@hotmail.com )



__Space Race__: Nov. 3- USSR launches Sputnik 2, which carried a small dog called Laika into orbit (USSR) Mar. 5- Explorer 2 is launched but it fails to reach orbit. (USA) Mar. 17- The Vanguard 1 satellite is launched. It continues to function for 3 years. (USA) May 15- Sputnik 3 is launched. (USSR) Oct. 1- The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is formed, it replaces the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA). (USA) Oct. 11- Pioneer 1 is launched to a height of 70,700 miles. (USA) Mar. 3- Pioneer 4 is launched on a Earth-Moon trajectory. It passed within 37,000 miles of the Moon before falling into a solar orbit. (USA) Sept. 12- Luna 2 is launched. It impacts the Moon on September 13, becoming the first man-made object to do so. (USA) Oct. 4- Luna 3 orbits the Moon and photographs 70% of its surface. (USSR) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">August 18- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">The US launches Discoverer XIV, its first camera equipped spy satellite. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Nov. 8- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">John F. Kennedy is elected the 35th President of the United States. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">May 5- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Alan B. Shepard becomes the first American in space. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">May 25- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">President John F. Kennedy addresses Congress and challenges the nation to go to the Moon before the end of the decade. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">July 21- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Gus Grissom is launched on a sub-orbital flight. His Liberty-Bell capsule is lost when it fills with water and sinks after splashdown. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Aug. 6- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Gherman Titov spends a day in space aboard Vostok 2. (USSR) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Dec. 7- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">NASA announces the Gemini Program. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">May 24- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Scott Carpenter repeats John Glenn's flight aboard "Aurora 7". (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Sept. 12- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">President Kennedy gives a speech at Rice University reaffirming the importance of the Moon program. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Sept. 17- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">NASA selects its second group of astronauts. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Oct. 3- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Walter Schirra orbits the Earth six times.(USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Dec. 14- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Mariner 2 flies past Venus and enters a solar orbit. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">June 16- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Cosmonaut Valentia Tereshkova becomes the first woman in space. (USSR) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Oct. 17- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">A third group of NASA astronauts is selected. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Nov. 22- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">President Kennedy is assassinated. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Oct. 31- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Astronaut Theodore Freeman dies in a plane crash. (USA) Mar. 23- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Gus Grissom and John Young fly the first manned Gemini spacecraft.(USA) June 3- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Ed White performs America's first spacewalk. Jim McDivitt remains in the Gemini capsule. (USA) July 14- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Mariner 4 returns close ranger images of Mars. (USA) Nov. 16- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Venus 3 is launched. It becomes the first man made object to impact Venus on March 1, 1966. (USSR) Dec. 4- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Frank Borman and James Lovell begin a two week stay in Earth orbit aboard Gemini 7. (USA) Dec. 15- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Walter Schirra and Thomas Stafford, in their Gemini 6 spacecraft, make the first space rendezvous with Gemini 7. (USA) Feb. 28- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Astronauts Charles Bassett and Elliott See die when their plane crashes in bad weather. (USA) Apr. 3- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Luna 10 becomes the first satellite to orbit the Moon. (USSR) June 2- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Surveyor 1 soft-lands on the Moon. (USA) Aug. 14- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Lunar Orbiter 1 enters orbit around the Moon and takes the first picture of the Earth from that distance. (USA) Nov. 11- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Gemini 12, the last flight of the Gemini Program, launches with James Lovell and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin aboard. (USA) Apr. 24- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov is killed when the parachutes of his Soyuz 1 capsule fail to open properly following re-entry. (USSR) June 6- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Astronaut Edward Givens is killed in an automobile accident. (USA) Oct. 5- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Astronaut Clifton Williams is killed in a plane crash. (USA) Oct. 18- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Venera 4 transmits data about the atmosphere of Venus. (USSR) Sept. 15- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Zond 5 is launched. It carried a biological payload (including two turtles) around the Moon and returned to Earth six days later. (USSR) Oct. 11- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">The crew of Apollo 7 begin a 10 day mission to study the new spacecraft. (USA) Dec. 21- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Frank Borman, James Lovell, and William Anders begin the first manned journey from the Earth to the Moon. On Christmas Eve they take turns reading Genesis in a broadcast heard around the world. (USA) July 20- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin become the first men to walk on the Moon while crewmate Michael Collins orbits around the Moon alone. (USA) Nov. 19- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Pete Conrad and Alan Bean perform the first precision lunar landing, touching down just 600 feet from the Surveyor 3 probe that arrived two years earlier. (USA) <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">- //Timeline of Space Exploration//, The Space Race, 2009, [|www.thespacerace.com/timeline/] __Arms Race & Nuclear Proliferation__:
 * 1957: Oct. 4- USSR launches Sputnik 1, (USSR)
 * 1958: Jan 31- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Explorer 1, the first American satellite to reach orbit, is launched. It carried scientific equipment that lead to the discovery of the Van Allen radiation belt. (USA)
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">1959: Jan 2.- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">Luna 1 is launched by the USSR. It is the first man made object to orbit the Sun. (USSR)
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">1960: Apr.1- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Tiros 1, the first successful weather satellite, is launched. (USA)
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">1961: Apr. 12- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Yuri Gagarin orbits the Earth once and becomes the first man in space. (USSR)
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">1962: Feb. 20- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">John Glenn orbits the Earth three times. (USA)
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">1963: May 15- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">L. Gordon Cooper spends 34 hours in space. He is the last American to fly in space alone. (USA)
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt;">1964: July 31- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Ranger 7 transmits the first close range images of the Moon. (USA)
 * 1965: Mar. 18-<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Alexei Leonov spends 12 minutes outside of his Voskhod spacecraft performing the first spacewalk. (USSR)
 * 1966: Feb. 3- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Luna 9 becomes the first spacecraft to soft-land on the Moon. (USSR)
 * 1967: Jan. 27- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger Chaffee are killed when a fire ignites in their Apollo 1 capsule while performing a test on the launch pad. (USA)
 * 1968:Mar. 27- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space, dies in a plane crash. (USSR)
 * 1969: Jan. 16- <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Soyuz 4 & 5 perform the first Soviet spacecraft docking. (USSR)


 * -Towards the end of 1949, the build up of nuclear weapons, also known as the Nuclear arms race, between the East and West (mainly USA and USSR) began in earnest as the Russians developed their own atomic bomb in 1949 following the USA's production of the atomic bomb four years prior; although the US was well ahead in the number of atomic bombs, the Russians were determined to catch up.
 * USA produced a bomber - the B52 - that could fly 6,000 miles and deliver a nuclear pay-load. Such a development required massive financial backing from the government - something which America could afford to do and which Russia could not. Russia then concentrated on producing bigger bombs - a far more cost effective procedure.
 * In October 1957, the world was introduced to the fear of a missile attack when Sputnik was launched. This was to lead to ICBMs : Inter-continental ballistic missiles. As a result, America built the DEW line around the Artic - **D**efense and **E**arly **W**arning system.
 * At the end of the 1950s, American Intelligence estimated that in a Russian missile attack, 20 million Americans would die and 22 million would be injured. During the 1960s, the Russians put their money into producing more missiles regardless of quality while America built fewer but better quality missiles the Atlas could go 5,000 miles at a speed of 16,000 mph. By 1961, there were enough bombs to destroy the world.
 * Despite this, great emphasis was put on new weapon systems - mobile missile launchers were built, missiles were housed underground in silos and in 1960 the first Polaris submarine was launched carrying 16 nuclear missiles. Each missile carried four warheads which could targeted on different cities; hence one submarine effectively carried 64 nuclear warheads.


 * During the 1960s the theory of **MAD** developed - **Mutually Assured Destruction**. This meant that if Russia attacked the west, the west would make sure that they would suitably retaliate i.e. there would be no winners. By 1981, USA had 8,000 ICBMs and USSR 7,000 ICBMs. By 1981, USA had 4,000 planes capable of delivering a nuclear bomb. Russia had 5000. (By 1986, it is estimated that throughout the world there were 40,000 nuclear warheads - the equivalent of one million Hiroshima bombs. British Intelligence estimated that just one medium sized H-bomb on London would essentially destroy anything living up to 30 miles away.)
 * Confronted by such awesome statistics, world leaders had to move to a position where they trusted each other more. Throughout the 1960's and 1970's "detente" had been used to ease bad relations between the superpowers. This was to culminate in the Reykjavik meeting between presidents Reagan and Gorbachev that started real progress in the cut in nuclear weaponry in future meetings (if little was actually gained at the meeting in Reykjavik).
 * Many feared where the Cold War was going due to the belief that the more nuclear weapons one possessed, the more powerful one was. Both America and Russia greatly increased the built up of their stockpiles of nuclear weapons from this period to the 1970's.

http://soule503.tripod.com/thenuclearweaponarchives/id5.html

__**SOURCE A**__ //Extract from **The international Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (1968),** an agreement by nuclear powers to not transfer nuclear weapons, or nuclear weapon technology, to non-nuclear states. By 1970, 135 nations signed the treaty. Entered into force on March 5, 1970.//

<span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Article I** <span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Each nuclear-weapon State Party to the Treaty undertakes not to transfer to any recipient whatsoever nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices or control over such weapons or explosive devices directly, or indirectly; and not in any way to assist, encourage, or induce any non-nuclear-weapon State to manufacture or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices, or control over such weapons or explosive devices.


 * Article II**

<span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">Each non-nuclear-weapon State Party to the Treaty undertakes not to receive the transfer from any transfer or whatsoever of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices or of control over such weapons or explosive devices directly, or indirectly; not to manufacture or otherwise acquire nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices; and not to seek or receive any assistance in the manufacture of nuclear weapons or other nuclear explosive devices...

<span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**...** <span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**Article IV** <span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">1. Nothing in this Treaty shall be interpreted as affecting the inalienable right of all the Parties to the Treaty to develop research, production and use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes without discrimination and in conformity with Articles I and II of this Treaty. <span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">2. All the Parties to the Treaty undertake to facilitate, and have the right to participate in, the fullest possible exchange of equipment, materials and scientific and technological information for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy. Parties to the Treaty in a position to do so shall also co-operate in contributing alone or together with other States or international organizations to the further development of the applications of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes, especially in the territories of non-nuclear-weapon States Party to the Treaty, with due consideration for the needs of the developing areas of the world.

<span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**__SOURCE B__-** Extract from President Kennedy's "moon" speech, at Rice Stadium, at Rice University, on September 12, 1962, in which he made it clear that he intended to make the US the leading power in space exploration, and reaffirmed his goal, to put a man on the moon.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">"<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">If this capsule history of our progress teaches us anything, it is that man, in his quest for knowledge and progress, is determined and cannot be deterred. The exploration of space will go ahead, whether we join in it or not, and it is one of the great adventures of all time, and no nation which expects to be the leader of other nations can expect to stay behind in the race for space. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">Those who came before us made certain that this country rode the first waves of the industrial revolutions, the first waves of modern invention, and the first wave of nuclear power, and this generation does not intend to founder in the backwash of the coming age of space. We mean to be a part of it--we mean to lead it. For the eyes of the world now look into space, to the moon and to the planets beyond, and we have vowed that we shall not see it governed by a hostile flag of conquest, but by a banner of freedom and peace. We have vowed that we shall not see space filled with weapons of mass destruction, but with instruments of knowledge and understanding. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">Yet the vows of this Nation can only be fulfilled if we in this Nation are first, and, therefore, we intend to be first. In short, our leadership in science and in industry, our hopes for peace and security, our obligations to ourselves as well as others, all require us to make this effort, to solve these mysteries, to solve them for the good of all men, and to become the world's leading space-faring nation. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">We set sail on this new sea because there is new knowledge to be gained, and new rights to be won, and they must be won and used for the progress of all people. For space science, like nuclear science and all technology, has no conscience of its own. Whether it will become a force for good or ill depends on man, and only if the United States occupies a position of pre-eminence can we help decide whether this new ocean will be a sea of peace or a new terrifying theater of war. I do not say the we should or will go unprotected against the hostile misuse of space any more than we go unprotected against the hostile use of land or sea, but I do say that space can be explored and mastered without feeding the fires of war, without repeating the mistakes that man has made in extending his writ around this globe of ours. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt;">There is no strife, no prejudice, no national conflict in outer space as yet. Its hazards are hostile to us all. Its conquest deserves the best of all mankind, and its opportunity for peaceful cooperation many never come again.... <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: normal; margin: 0cm 0cm 10pt;">Within these last 19 months at least 45 satellites have circled the earth. Some 40 of them were "made in the United States of America" and they were far more sophisticated and supplied far more knowledge to the people of the world than those of the Soviet Union....."

<span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**SOURCE C-** A political cartoon from the Cold War era featuring Khrushchev and Kennedy on the topic of Nuclear Arms. Extracted from http://mhhelp.wikispaces.com/



//"Khrushchev and Kennedy push brinkmanship to its illogical conclusion ..."//

<span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**SOURCE D- Extracted from** 'The Nuclear Arms Race' on the History Learning Site, http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/nuclear_arms_race.htm

'...The world greatly changed when USA exploded the H-bomb in 1952. This one bomb was smaller in size than the Hiroshima atomic bomb but 2500 times more powerful. The Russians produced an H-bomb in 1953 and the world became a much more dangerous place. However, it is possible that the sheer power of these weapons and the fear that they evoked, may have stopped a nuclear war... In October 1957, the world was introduced to the fear of a missile attack when Sputnik was launched. This was to lead to ICBM’s : Inter-continental ballistic missiles. As a result, America built the DEW line around the Artic - **D**efence and **E**arly **W**arning system. At the end of the 1950’s, American Intelligence estimated that in a Russian missile attack, 20 million Americans would die and 22 million would be injured. During the 1960’s, the Russians put their money into producing more missiles regardless of quality while America built fewer but better quality missiles - the Atlas could go 5,000 miles at a speed of 16,000 mph. By 1961, there were enough bombs to destroy the world. Despite this, great emphasis was put on new weapon systems - mobile missile launchers were built, missiles were housed underground in silos and in 1960 the first Polaris submarine was launched carrying 16 nuclear missiles. Each missile carried four warheads which could targeted on different cities; hence one submarine effectively carried 64 nuclear warheads. During the 1960’s the theory of **MAD** developed - **Mutually Assured Destruction**. This meant that if Russia attacked the west, the west would make sure that they would suitably retaliate i.e. there would be no winners. By 1981, USA had 8,000 ICBM’s and USSR 7,000 ICBM’s By 1981, USA had 4,000 planes capable of delivering a nuclear bomb. Russia had 5000. USA defense spending for 1981 = 178 billion dollars. By 1986, it was 367 billion dollars. By 1986, it is estimated that throughout the world there were 40,000 nuclear warheads - the equivalent of one million Hiroshima bombs. British Intelligence estimated that just one medium sized H-bomb on London would essentially destroy anything living up to 30 miles away. Confronted by such awesome statistics, world leaders had to move to a position where they trusted each other more. Throughout the 1960's and 1970's "detente" had been used to ease bad relations between the superpowers. This was to culminate in the Reykjavik meeting between presidents Reagan and Gorbachev that started real progress in the cut in nuclear weaponry in future meetings (if little was actually gained at the meeting in Reykjavik)."

<span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**﻿** <span style="font-family: Geneva,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">**SOURCE E** ﻿- article, //The Space Race//, from [], posted on January 12, 2001, by P. Antill

"On the 3rd October 1942, German scientists launched an A-4 rocket, which travelled 118 miles and rose to an altitude of over 50 miles. The A-4 was to become the V2 rocket, armed with a ton of explosive and used against London and Antwerp. After the Second World War, both the USA and Soviet Union began their own space programmes using the scientists and equipment they had captured from the Germans at Peenemünde. The American space programme got off to quite a leisurely start, with number of research projects being carried out almost in competition with each other. However, the first shock came with the launch of Sputnik 1 by the Soviets on the 4th October 1957 from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, and weighed 83 kg. It orbited the Earth for three weeks sending out a weak signal, and was far heavier than the 9-kg package the US Navy was going to send up on the Vanguard rocket. A second blow followed this when the Soviets launched Sputnik 2 on the 3rd November 1957; carrying a dog called Laika, and weighed in at 508 kg. These successes led to a dramatic expansion and consolidation of the American space program, but it didn't start well with the Vanguard rocket blowing up. The US Army finally got the American effort off to the start they wanted, with the launch of Explorer 1 on the 30th January 1958. It was less than a metre long and only weighed 4.8 kg, but discovered the Van Allen radiation belts. The first satellite to be described as a military communications satellite was launched by the Americans on the 18th December 1958, carrying a satellite called SCORE, which carried a taped Christmas message by President Eisenhower. This was followed by the launch of Discover 1 on the 28th February 1959 from Vandenberg Air Force Base on the West Coast of the United States. By the early 1960s the US had achieved some notable successes including the first weather, navigation, reconnaissance, early warning and communications satellites. But the Soviet Union had put the first man into orbit, cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin, launched aboard Vostok 1 on the 12th April 1961. The USA didn't follow this until the 20th February 1962, with John Glenn aboard the Mercury capsule, Friendship 7. As the 1960s got underway, the Space Race intensified, with the Soviets catching the American lead in satellite technology. Of more concern to the West was their lead in manned spaceflight and the heavy lift capability that implied. In October 1960, while campaigning for the Presidency, John F Kennedy stated that "we are in a strategic space race with the Russians and we have been losing .... Control of space will be decided in the next decade. If the Soviets control space, they can control Earth, as in the past centuries the nations that controlled the seas dominated the continents." The Soviet lead called into question American technological superiority and self-esteem. Consequently, President Kennedy declared that the US would launch a manned mission to the moon before the end of the decade. The US continued with its Mercury missions until May 1963, and the Soviets their Vostok missions until the following month, when Valentina Tereslikova became the first woman in space, in Vostok 6. Both countries moved onto new systems after a pause, with the US moving to the Gemini capsules and the Soviet Union resuming with Voshkod 1. Alexei Leonov became the first man to 'walk' in space, from Voshkod 2, while the USA conducted docking manoeuvres with its Gemini and Agena vehicles. The Soviets began launching the Soyuz flights in April 1967, which unfortunately started with the tragic death of Vladimir Kornarov when the re-entry capsule became entangled in its parachute. This followed the deaths of Virgil Grisson, Edward White and Roger Chaffee who were killed by a fire in their Apollo capsule while practising launch procedures. While Soyuz missions concentrated on refining docking procedures, the Apollo programme tested the techniques of sending men to the moon and bringing them back to Earth. This was finally accomplished on the 21st July 1969 when Apollo 11, with Neil Armstrong and Edwin 'Buzz' Aldrin landed on the moon, while Michael Collins stayed in orbit. During the 1970s, both sides continued to increase their satellite launches but also work on anti-satellite and antiballistic missile systems, with the Americans developing the Nike-Zeus Anti-Satellite system (ASAT), Sprint and Spartan Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) systems, and the Soviets their own versions. The Americans launched Skylab, and after some technical difficulties and damage was repaired, it became operational in June 1973. It provided a wealth of scientific and military data. The Soviets undertook their own manned space station programme - that of Salyut, which continued into the 1980's, and was eventually succeeded by the Mir station. Both sides also sent a series of probe missions out to the other planets in our solar system. Finally, the launch of the American space shuttle on the 12th April 1981 heralded the beginning of a programme that would result in an unprecedented access to space, for the space shuttle was a fully reusable launch and recovery platform, launching like a conventional rocket, but landing like an aircraft. The next big developments are likely to be the international space station, Liberty, and a manned mission to Mars."

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1(a). According to **Source C**, how is the way in which the political figures are presented lend itself to present the message the cartoonist is trying to convey. Consider and explain the significance of the caption below. (3 marks)

(b) According **Source D**, what are the reasons the USA and the USSR continued to amass nuclear weapons -despite the obvious threats the arms posed- and that contributed to the eventual easing of tension? (2 marks)

2. To what extent does the image in **Source C** support the views expressed in **Source A** regarding Nuclear Proliferation. Which of these sources supported detente? (6 marks)

3. With reference to their origin and purpose, assess the value and limitations of **Source B** and **Source E** for historians studying the Space Race. (6 marks)

4. Using these sources and your own knowledge, analyze the competitive relations between the USSR and the US, in relation to the Space Race, Arms Race and Nuclear Proliferation. [8 marks]